Editor's Note
Sun Jing is an Associate Professor at the Quanzhou Cultural Heritage Research Institute of Quanzhou Normal University. She received her Ph.D. in Anthropology from the Department of Sociology at Peking University in 2020 and serves as an editor for the journal Study on Natural and Cultural Heritage. Professor Sun Jing's main research interests include cultural heritage, the anthropology of religion, and the history of academic thought. On August 10, 2022, invited by WHITRAP-Beijing, she traveled to Fuzhou to attend the closing presentation of the 2022 Cultural Heritage Conservation Joint Workshop. After the workshop, Professor Sun Jing wrote an article offering a brief review of the Fuzhou workshop and sharing her insights on the next steps for Fuzhou's World Heritage nomination process. WHITRAP-Beijing thanks Professor Sun Jing for her contribution and for her continued support of the center's work!
(Photo | Professor Sun Jing providing commentary at the workshop's closing presentation)
Sketches: A Visit to Fuzhou
Revisiting Fuzhou: Shangxia-Hang
On August 9, I visited Fuzhou for the second time. I remember that my first visit to Fuzhou was two years ago. At that time, I stayed in the Three Lanes and Seven Alleys (Sanfang Qixiang) and only recalled visiting a nice bookstore. On that trip, together with Professor Chen Jinguo, I visited several different locations to research religion in Fuzhou. I particularly remember going to counties such as Minhou and Lianjiang to visit many Christian churches and interview numerous pastors — it left a deep impression on me. This time, I came to Fuzhou at the invitation of Li Guanghan, and was also curious about the "on-site" working methods of the Peking University workshop. In the evening, I went to Shangxia-Hang with Li Guanghan and Piao Lina. The architectural styles in Shangxia-Hang are mixed and diverse, with a strong sense of folk community atmosphere. However, the area is now mainly focused on developing the nighttime economy, and the original residents and community fabric have largely disappeared. According to Qi Xiaojin's research, Shang-Hang likely formed earlier than Xia-Hang. Cangxia is even more recent than Shangxia-Hang. Shangxia-Hang naturally reminds me of "Jubao Chengnan" (the southern part of the ancient city) in Quanzhou, where my doctoral fieldwork was conducted — both are commercial distribution hubs located outside the ancient city, formed in the hinterland along river mouths. I also noticed several interesting temples, such as the Zhang Zhenjun Temple, the Fashi (Ritual Master) Temple, and the Temple of Chen Wenlong, Minister of Water Affairs (Shui Bu Shangshu). Chen Wenlong is interesting because he died a loyal martyr in the Song Dynasty but was only deified in the Ming Dynasty, exactly during the period of maritime prohibition and isolation, yet he became a sea god. The reason is that he was the deity of official ships traveling to the Ryukyu Kingdom. This makes me think that perhaps we can examine Fuzhou's Ming Dynasty trade history through the evolution of the Chen Wenlong cult. Zhang Zhenjun is even more fascinating — his temple is located at the confluence of waterways in Shangxia-Hang, and he is regarded as a god of commerce. Yet, in the An-Yong-De area of Quanzhou, I discovered more of his connections to agriculture, where he is a primary deity in the interior mountains. Perhaps further research through the lens of folk belief could uncover the relationship between the mobility of merchant groups from Quanzhou and Zhangzhou and Fuzhou. The workshop could continue to explore this layer of historical information in the future.
Shangxia-Hang
(Photo | Zhang Zhenjun Ancestral Hall, Chen Wenlong Shangshu Temple)
Impressions of the Workshop: Methods and Collaboration
The next day, after listening to the presentations from the various Peking University workshop groups, I was impressed by the workshop's working methods, which placed equal emphasis on historical research and contemporary site investigation. Although there was no sociology instructor involved, the in-depth analysis of economic activities, property rights, and management mechanisms in the site survey was remarkable. The investigations were meticulous and comprehensive, and the presentation methods were rich and vivid. In the historical analysis, attention was also paid to connecting architectural entities with relational mapping of historical figures, making good use of social history methods. It is clear that the Peking University workshop goes beyond merely focusing on architectural entities and relatively abstract neighborhood planning, delving deeply into the community fabric. This working method is instructive in guiding teamwork. Anthropologists are accustomed to working alone, but the advantages of teamwork guided by effective methods are very apparent.
Workshop
(Photo | Workshop presentation scene)
Comparing Narratives: Fuzhou and Quanzhou
After listening to the presentations from the four groups — Three Lanes and Seven Alleys (Sanfang Qixiang), Yantai Mountain, Shangxia-Hang and Mawei Shipyard, and Guling — my most immediate impression was the great similarity in human geography between the ancient cities of Fuzhou and Quanzhou. In Quanzhou, merchant ships anchored in the outer harbor, while goods were traded in the inner harbor. The Shangxia-Hang (Cangxia) area also has the "Wanshou Bridge" connecting to the opposite bank. To the north of Shangxia-Hang lies the hinterland of Fuzhou city, where the Three Lanes and Seven Alleys and Zhuzi Lane (Zhu Xi Lane) are located. Professor Sun Hua once said, "Quanzhou is a city that continuously expanded according to local conditions, a model of a large ancient Chinese city that followed the contours of the terrain." His classification of ancient cities is based on their human geography. Quanzhou prospered from overseas trade and is therefore known as a commercial port city. So, the first question that came to my mind was: Where is the ancient city of Fuzhou? What is the trajectory of its historical changes? After the Tang Dynasty relocation and construction of the new city, Quanzhou experienced multiple historical transformations — including Luocheng, Zicheng, and Yicheng — and through generations of research by scholars of Quanzhou's history and culture, a relatively clear narrative has gradually emerged. This includes the demolition of city walls and construction of roads in the 1920s due to the modern lifestyle movement of overseas Chinese. Understanding the location and transformation of Fuzhou's ancient city is particularly important for clarifying its relationship with the Three Lanes and Seven Alleys, Zhuzi Lane, and Shangxia-Hang. Embedded here is a historical proposition: Was commerce always kept outside the city, not tolerated within a city shaped by Neo-Confucian ideology? In the case of Quanzhou, scholars such as Billy K.L. So have discussed the relationship between the boundaries of traditional Chinese commercial cities and the Confucian "anti-commerce" ideology. Furthermore, looking at Yantai Mountain, we might also consider the possibility that merchants, especially foreign merchants, were not allowed to enter the city? I asked the same question to Director He Jingping. He gave me two reasons: first, that foreigners had different site preferences from the Chinese; second, the Chinese authorities' need for convenient management. These two reasons are still analyzed from a functionalist perspective. To explore historical mentalities, I believe that the relationship between the form of modern Fuzhou's ancient city and the development of Shangxia-Hang and Yantai Mountain (Guling) can be studied in comparison with the Quanzhou case. This could help answer: First, what is the relationship, under the influence of human geography, between commercial port cities built according to terrain and the Chinese Confucian "anti-commerce" ideology? Beneath this question lies another: What is Fuzhou's particularity? What is the social foundation that enabled this treaty port to nurture thinkers who "opened their eyes to see the world"? Second, during Quanzhou's World Heritage nomination process, the academic recognition it eventually received from ICOMOS was greatly aided by the concept of "emporium" proposed by Western scholar Angela Schottenhammer. For Fuzhou's historical narrative to transcend the baseline of being a "commercial port city," it will inevitably need to refine a more precise and effective academic concept in subsequent research — one that resonates with the international academic community. This may be a critical challenge.
Challenges
Additionally, in conversation with Director He, he mentioned: Spatially, among Quanzhou's 22 heritage sites, a large proportion are concentrated within the ancient city, whereas Fuzhou's heritage sites are likely more dispersed. Temporally, Quanzhou's heritage sites are concentrated in the Song and Yuan dynasties, while Fuzhou's heritage sites need to be unified within a persuasive historical period. Currently, the workshop has listed quite many heritage sites, which require further refinement. In his view, for Fuzhou to form a coherent narrative for its World Heritage nomination, it must overcome challenges in both spatial and temporal dimensions.
The Dawn of Enlightenment
I deeply believe that despite the challenges, the Dawn of Enlightenment (1840–1940) is a very promising entry point. This period represents a time of dramatic intellectual transformation in China, with the greatest impact on the contemporary era. So the question that concerns me most remains: Why Fuzhou? What were the historical driving forces? Was it the impact from overseas? Or was it the profound indigenous Confucian heritage accumulated by the old gentry families within Fuzhou's ancient city over the Tang, Song, Yuan, and Ming dynasties that led them to engage in intense self-reflection on their own civilization? In Wang Mingming's The Stony City (Citong Cheng), he argues that Quanzhou was open and inclusive during the Song and Yuan dynasties, but influenced by Neo-Confucianism in the Ming and Qing dynasties, it shifted toward a grassroots management system. He suggests that the "market" (shi) of the Song and Yuan brought "chaos" (luan), which led to the rise of "order" (zhi), manifesting in the symbolic defense of the "city" (cheng) and the pu-jing system — a composite system of grassroots management and temple dual functions. In other cities of Fujian, I have also learned of the continued existence of this pu-jing system. Professor Lin Zhisheng's remarks confirmed the survival of the pu-jing system in Fuzhou's ancient city. For Wang Mingming, the deep structure of Chinese history oscillates between "order" (zhi) and "chaos" (luan). So my question is: Is the historical structure of Fuzhou similar or different?
Outstanding Universal Value
Now, turning to Gulangyu (a site I am less familiar with): its World Heritage nomination narrative focuses on the fusion of diverse civilizations and cultures, avoiding factors such as colonialism and missionaries. Yet Gulangyu's geographical location still, to some extent, answers the same question: Did foreign merchants necessarily have to form communities outside the city? However, Xiamen, which developed from a fishing village in modern times, clearly has a different historical status and cultural depth compared to Quanzhou and Fuzhou. How do we understand Fuzhou's particularity? Yantai Mountain and Guling are clearly more complex than Gulangyu in Xiamen (although, as Director He pointed out, the historical environment may be much diminished after demolitions), and they still hold great potential for exploration. Moreover, Fuzhou also has the Mawei Shipyard School (Fuzhou Naval Academy), which truly put into practice the idea of "learning the superior skills of the barbarians to control them." Fuzhou's particularity lies in being a place where modern Sino-Western encounters genuinely collided; where Chinese civilization, having been impacted, responded; where academies were established to teach "technical" practice — rather than the passive acceptance of Western culture and the narrative of forced opening presented by Gulangyu. Fuzhou's World Heritage nomination can be compared with Quanzhou and Gulangyu on many levels, thereby repositioning the particularity of its own historical narrative and clarifying its Outstanding Universal Value (OUV).
Intellectual History and Fuzhou's World Heritage Nomination
Because I have recently been focusing on the academic and intellectual history of Quanzhou, I sense that Fuzhou came into contact with "modern academic thought" earlier than Quanzhou. Quanzhou was only enlightened by scholars such as Zhang Xinglang and Gu Jiegang, which initiated modern archaeology and folklore. I am curious about the intellectual history of Fuzhou since modern times: What kind of teacher-student relationships existed among these scholars? How did they discuss the relationship between technology and thought? How did they understand the traditional Confucian classics (jing shi) and the new historiography? It seems that Fuzhou's thinkers entered the currents of world history earlier than Liang Qichao and Wang Guowei. How did they interact with missionaries, receive enlightenment from new ideas while studying abroad, and engage with Japan? In what sense did they realize or move toward "modernity"? I think this area could generate many questions regarding intellectual history and might be one of the pathways to extracting key concepts for Fuzhou's historical narrative.
